Slavery in the New Testament and the Roman Empire

Exploring the context of ancient Roman slavery and what it means for the New Testament

The following is a paper I wrote about New Testament slavery in November 2021. Upon rereading it, I noticed a few embarrassing typos that I have corrected for your sake, though I was overall surprised at the quality, having expected it to be worse. It is only the second research paper I have written, so it is probably not all that great. Despite that, I think it is a fascinating topic that some Christians wonder about.

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The world of the New Testament had numerous differences from the world we live in today. One of the most prominent issues was that of slavery. Approximately one-third of all people residing in large cities of the Roman Empire were slaves,¹ which made it a normal and accepted part of daily life.² Slaves were vital to the economy, as many of them were highly skilled workers. Due to the ubiquitous prevalence of slavery in ancient societies, the New Testament talks much about it. To fully interpret the attitudes and implications surrounding slavery in the gospels and epistles of the New Testament, one must first reach a level of understanding of the workings, benefits, and drawbacks of slavery in the Roman Empire.

Slavery in the New Testament world was different in several ways from slavery in the modern world. Every part of the Roman Empire was saturated with slaves and slaveholders, making them something so widespread that their very existence remained hugely unquestioned.³ Many Roman families owned slaves, as the cost was not unbearably high as to be afforded by only the very wealthy.⁴ Slaves were either prisoners of war, born to slave parents, abandoned by their parents or sold into slavery either by themselves or someone else.⁵ Additionally, it was not unprecedented for parents to sell their children into slavery.⁶ Selling oneself into slavery was done for a few reasons, including paying off debt or elevating social status by being granted citizenship after becoming free.⁷ These slaves were sold in markets, and the price of a slave was dictated by several factors, such as nationality, history with past owners, skill level, experience, and appearance.

Albert J. Harrill commented that “Roman slaves were not segregated from freeborns in work or type of job performed, with the notable exceptions of military service and mining. This integration of slaves into all levels of the ancient economy marks an important contrast with modern slavery. Modern slavery, for example, often required slave illiteracy by law, whereas ancient masters prized educated slaves.”⁸ Some slaves worked as farmers, doctors, artists or miners, while others worked as domestic servants or held management positions.⁹ Typically, children born to slave parents started working as slaves at age five. These child slaves worked alongside adult slaves and were rewarded and punished in the same ways.¹⁰

There was much variation in the living standards of slaves in the Roman Empire. Some slaves had advantages over the freeborn poor, having continual access to food, education, health care, clothing, and shelter. Simmons explained that “The lot of a truly destitute freeborn plebian was often worse than that of a slave.”¹¹ Even though slaves were sometimes better off than impecunious freeborn people in terms of material possessions, they still had a lower status.¹² Some masters even allowed their more qualified slaves to own slaves as a reward for obedience.¹³ The quote below draws attention to the fact that not all slaves were equal. 

The history of slavery in the ancient Mediterranean world shows that masters managed their slaves in a wide variety of ways, with some masters treating their slaves well and regarding them with affection, and other masters mistreating their slaves and subjecting them to violence. How slaves were treated depended on a daunting variety of factors, including the master’s personality, disposition, and management philosophy; the slave’s character and conduct; the circumstances under which the slave became the master’s property; and the tasks that the slaves were assigned. That masters treated one or more of their slaves well did not necessarily mean that their other slaves received the same kind of treatment.¹⁴

In severe cases, a slave could force their master to sell them to another master if they had been abused.¹⁵ Still, people today must remember that slaves had no freedom and were often punished harshly for accidental mistakes.¹⁶

Granting slaves their freedom was typical. The practice of masters freeing their slaves provided an incentive for the slaves to work hard, so most slaves diligently obeyed their masters in the hope of acquiring freedom.¹⁷ Slave masters used a variety of rewards and punishments as motivations for slaves to do their work well. Punishments consisted of physical pain,¹⁸ while rewards involved the most productive slaves being provided with better clothing, more responsibility, and eventually, freedom.¹⁹ Slaves were often freed shortly after age thirty and became either freedmen or freedwomen; this labelled them as former slaves.²⁰ In many cases, freed slaves were able to gain citizenship.²¹

Once a slave had been freed, the former master became the patron of the former slave, and these freedmen or freedwomen often continued doing the same sort of work for their master after being freed.²² Because of their talents and persistence, freed slaves rose in status more rapidly than any other group in the Roman Empire.²³ An extreme example of a freed slave rising in status was the provincial governor Marcus Antonius Felix, whom Paul appeared before in Acts chapter 24.²⁴

While some masters freed their slaves as an act of kindness, most of them freed their slaves due to financial benefit from reduced expenses.²⁵ Costs related to slaves were food, clothing, housing, equipment, repairs or replacements, medical care, training, supervision, and recovery of escaped slaves.²⁶ For a slave to become free, the master could either get a legal contract from a local magistrate, which allowed the freed slave to become a citizen, or write a letter declaring the freedom of that slave with a family member as a witness. If the latter option was chosen, the master still had some control over the freed slave. Slaves could also purchase their freedom if they had enough money saved up.²⁷

For the most part, people in the Roman Empire held a similar view of the practice of owning slaves. Since slaves were the property of their masters when one of them was injured, the master had only damaged their property, so there were no moral or legal objections.²⁸ Slaves were not considered inferior by nature to free people; instead, they were inferior in status and therefore trusted with valuable work.²⁹ The majority opinion on the worth of slaves was that they had extremely low worth aside from completing useful tasks.³⁰ Though they desired freedom, slaves did not view the practice of slavery as something morally wrong. They accepted their role and did not advocate for the abolition of slaveholding.³¹

Slave revolts were not unheard of, although they were infrequent and far exceeded by instances of individual slaves running off.³² Giving modern-day readers insight into the perspectives of influential Greek philosophers, Simmons wrote, “Aristotle concludes that there can be no true friendship between master and slave: ‘Master and slave have nothing in common: a slave is a living tool, just as a tool is an inanimate slave.’”³³ Unlike Aristotle, the Stoics did not believe that some humans were slaves by nature; instead, they believed that all humans possessed reason.³⁴ Even though Stoic philosophers thought this, they did not consider it immoral or wrong.³⁵

Fitzgerald stated that “Slaves were not only stereotyped as dumb and morally inferior but also were dehumanized and often conceived as of as animals… Some Greeks argued that slaves were utterly devoid of reason and thus could only be commanded rather than exhorted.”³⁶ Opposition to slavery was almost unheard of, though the Essenes rejected slaveholding, believing it was harmful to the enslaved.³⁷ The institution of slavery was so well integrated into Roman society that hardly anyone questioned its existence.

The New Testament writers addressed the topic of slavery numerous times but never showed strong support or disdain for it.³⁸ An intriguing comparison made by Jennifer A. Glancy explained this apparent endorsement of the practice. “Slavery was so basic a structure in the ancient world that challenging it might have seemed as odd as asking why water was wet or ice cold.”³⁹ On the topic of why early Christianity did not advocate for the abolition of slavery, Fitzgerald wrote, “Although individual Stoics and Christians criticized aspects of slavery or various abusive practices associated with it, neither group advocated its abolition as a socioeconomic institution… In the final analysis, both groups, or at least key members of both groups, tended to view institutional slavery as… something that, in and of itself, is neither good nor evil but falls in between.”⁴⁰

Similarly, Mark G. Johnston noted, “The apostolic mission was not primarily to Christianize the world, but to proclaim the gospel of salvation.”⁴¹ If the early church had fought for the freeing of all slaves, it would have taken away from the message that the church had been called to share. He continued by saying, “Slavery was a major component of the social and economic world in the Roman Empire and was a much more complex institution than many people today appreciate. If the apostle [Paul] and with him the early church had chosen to mount a major campaign for its abolition, it would have created a huge distraction to why the church exists and what its primary focus is: namely, the gospel.”⁴²

Due to the prodigious number of slaves present in the Roman Empire, it is evident that there were plenty of slaves as part of the early church, so there are various references to slavery in the New Testament.⁴³ Jesus challenged prevailing views of the time by connecting his role to that of a slave (Philippians 2:7) when he washed his disciples’ feet (John 13:1-17); this task was given to the lowest slave, usually a woman.⁴⁴ Glancy wrote, “At the same time, awareness of the dishonor associated with slavery should bring us a fresh appreciation of the newness of Jesus’ mandate to his followers to embrace the role of ‘slave of all’. Jesus died an excruciating and humiliating death, the death of a slave. This death is a model for the disciple’s life. Jesus does not condemn the institution of slavery. What he demands is something unexpected. He stipulates that his followers are to become a community of slaves serving one another.”⁴⁵

Jesus’ earthly ministry was so counter-cultural because he instructed his followers to become slaves of one another. He also taught that slaves should be like their masters (Matthew 10:25) and that those who want to be first should become slaves (Matthew 20:27, Mark 10:44). These early Christian teachings illustrate the fact that Jesus called his followers to have a perspective contrary to that of the general population.

The letters of the New Testament contain some direct references to slavery. The New Testament writers commonly used the metaphor of people being slaves to sin (John 8:34, Romans 6-7, Titus 3:3, 2 Peter 2:19). Such a phrase emphasized the insidious nature of sin using imagery familiar to the original audience. Six of these letters open with the author identifying himself as a slave of Christ Jesus (Romans 1:1, Philippians 1:1, Titus 1:1, James 1:1, 2 Peter 1:1, Jude 1:1).

Paul wrote directly to Christian slaves in 1 Corinthians 7:21 when he advised them to obtain freedom if circumstances allowed for them to do so. In the following verse, he explained that those who were slaves when called are now free in the Lord, and those who were free when called are now slaves of Christ. Doing so was a unique way of saying that Christian slaves were not inferior to freeborn Christians, and by writing this, Paul instructed both groups to view themselves from the opposite perspective so that they could better relate to each other. Paul even called himself a slave to all people in 1 Corinthians 9:19 because he made it his mission to do whatever it took to reach people with the Gospel.

There were times when Paul argued for the equality of slaves and free people (1 Corinthians 12:13, Galatians 3:28, Colossians 3:11), saying that once people had become Christians, they were all equal as believers, regardless of social status. That idea would have been viewed as strange by many. The New Testament writers also gave specific instructions for how slaves should behave. These passages may seem to oppose the passages mentioned previously in that they encourage slaves to work hard and respect their masters (Ephesians 6:5-8, Colossians 3:22-25, 1 Timothy 6:1-2, Titus 2:9-10, 1 Peter 2:18-21).

In his first letter to Timothy, Paul instructed slaves not to place a high priority on their comfort or convenience but to treat their masters with respect.⁴⁶ Johnston pointed out that “What stands out in Paul’s injunction to slaves in light of the all-controlling principle of their being in fellowship with Christ is the fact that he can call them to the kind of submission and devotion to their masters that is genuine… Nothing could have been more counter-cultural to the world of slavery in Paul’s day and nothing could be further from what is so often called the norm within the hierarchies of the workplace in ours. He was calling for the type of behaviour that was radically different from what this world expects.”⁴⁷ Peter even urged slaves to follow the example of the suffering of Jesus by enduring harsh treatment at the hands of their masters. William W. Harrell explained this passage.

What Peter does stress is the responsibility that slaves have to be submissive to their masters. It is not man but God who calls them to fulfill this duty. The God who calls them to the duty also enables them by his grace to fulfill it. He has provided them with the supreme and perfect example of One who has submitted to the role of a servant, namely his own incarnate Son. By their submission, believing slaves are to have an attitude of respect for the position, if not for the person, of their masters. They are to render diligent service, and to do so even when no one but their heavenly Master sees and knows what they are doing and why.⁴⁸

The reasoning behind Peter’s instruction is that the slaves would maintain a clear conscience before God, and he would provide them with a reward for patiently enduring suffering.⁴⁹ These mentions of slavery in the New Testament letters held much value at the time they were written and should certainly not be ignored or misinterpreted by modern-day readers.

The book of Philemon is an illuminating insight into issues of enslavement in the first-century church. Three main explanations exist for Paul’s purpose in writing his letter to Philemon. The most well-known is that Onesimus ran away from Philemon, met Paul, became a Christian, and then returned to his master with the letter. A second theory argues that Onesimus did not run away to find freedom but to find Paul after he had committed some misdeed. Some take the position of Onesimus as a dispatched slave, claiming that Philemon sent Onesimus to aid Paul in prison, but Paul kept Onesimus with him for a longer amount of time than had been arranged.⁵⁰ Whatever the case, it presents readers with a deeper knowledge of slavery in the Roman Empire.

Instead of condoning the enslavement of Christians or outright demanding its abolition, Paul emphasized that the barriers between slaves and masters could dissolve with Christian love and fellowship.⁵¹ Paul’s words in this letter speak to the fact that differences between culture, class, gender, race, or anything else the world uses to divide people should not be a point of separation between Christians.⁵² Johnston’s book on this letter said, “In none of this was Paul either demanding or even implying that Philemon ought to grant Onesimus his freedom, but rather that he should recognize their relationship had been radically altered through the gospel and through the wise and loving purposes of the Sovereign Lord himself.”⁵³ Through writing one of the shortest books of the Bible, Paul challenged the practice of slaveholding without requiring Christians to free their slaves.⁵⁴

Once a person has come to capture a considerably complete comprehension of slavery in the Mediterranean region of the first century, they will catch no contradictions with the classic coachings of the church. As stated by Bartchy, “Without a solid knowledge of slavery in the Roman Empire, readers of the NT can make errors in interpretation.”⁵⁵ The Bible’s references to slavery might seem strange to the modern reader, but they held much relevance with the original audience. Although slavery existed quite recently in the big picture of history, it varied much from the practice of enslavement at the time of the New Testament. The world of that time shares some similarities with the present day, but people must recognize the many differences between that time and today.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bartchy, Scott S. “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World.” In The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, edited by Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, 169-178. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2013.

Cook, W. John. 1 Timothy. Let’s Study Series. East Peoria, IL: Versa Press, 2009.

Fitzgerald, John T. “The Stoics and the Early Christians on the Treatment of Slaves.” In Stoicism and Early Christianity, edited by Tuomas Rasimus, Troels Engberg-Pedersen, and Ismo Dunderberg, 141-175. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010.

Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery as a Moral Problem: In the Early Church and Today. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2011.

Harrell, William W. 1 Peter. Let’s Study Series. Let’s Study Series. East Peoria, IL: Versa Press, 2004.

Harrill, Albert J. “Paul and Slavery.” In Paul in the Greco-Roman World: A Handbook, edited by J. Paul Sampley, 575-607. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2003.

Jeffers, James S. The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the Background of Early Christianity. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999.

Johnston, Mark G. Colossians and Philemon. Let’s Study Series. East Peoria, IL: Versa Press, 2013.

Simmons, William A. Peoples of the New Testament World: An Illustrated Guide. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008.

Teen Life Application Study Bible. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2013.

1. Simmons, Peoples, 310.

2. Bartchy, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” 169.

3. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 12.

4. Harrill, “Paul and Slavery,” 580.

5. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 222.

6. Bartchy, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” 171.

7. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 222.

8. Harrill, “Paul and Slavery,” 583.

9. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 224; Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 142.

10. Ibid., 150-151.

11. Simmons, Peoples, 312.

12. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 18.

13. Bartchy, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” 173.

14. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 142.

15. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 227-228.

16. Simmons, Peoples, 315.

17. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 230.

18. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 142.

19. Ibid., 146.

20. Bartchy, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” 174.

21. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 229.

22. Ibid., 232.

23. Ibid., 233.

24. Ibid., 234.

25. Simmons, Peoples, 315.

26. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 142-143.

27. Simmons, Peoples, 316.

28. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 149.

29. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 226.

30. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 17.

31. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 227.

32. Ibid., 228.

33. Simmons, Peoples, 313.

34. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 155-156.

35. Harrill, “Paul and Slavery,” 576.

36. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 147.

37. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 9.

38. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World, 235.

39. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 54.

40. Fitzgerald, “The Treatment of Slaves,” 152.

41. Johnston, Colossians and Philemon, 114.

42. Ibid., 136.

43. Simmons, Peoples, 319.

44. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 24.

45. Ibid., 27.

46. Cook, 1 Timothy, 99.

47. Johnston, Colossians and Philemon, 115.

48. Harrell, 1 Peter, 70.

49. Ibid, 71.

50. Harrill, “Paul and Slavery,” 589-592.

51. Teen Life Application Study Bible, 1343n4.

52. Johnston, Colossians and Philemon, 96-97.

53. Ibid., 149.

54. Glancy, Slavery as a Moral Problem, 50.

55. Bartchy, “Slaves and Slavery in the Roman World,” 176.